Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: A Complete Guide to the Causes, Events, and Legacy

What was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, or Massacre of Amritsar, occurred on April 13, 1919, and altered India’s history, propelling Gandhi into full commitment to Indian nationalism and independence. It cast a permanent shadow on Indo-British relations, revealing the British inhumanity as General Dyer ordered troops to fire without warning at a banned public meeting. Few events in our subcontinent’s history are as repugnant yet as pivotal as this massacre.

The brutal murder of peaceful protestors by the British rule marked a dark chapter in India’s independence struggle. It occurred in an enclosed park with one exit, leading to a monument erected in their memory by the Government of India in 1951. The Yaad-e-Jallian Museum, which opened in March 2019, stands as a testament to the lives lost, offering an authentic account of the tragedy. This massacre exposed the British’s inhumanity, as General Dyer instructed his troops to open fire without warning on a crowd gathered for a banned public meeting.

The tragic event remains a symbol of British colonial atrocities in Amritsar, Punjab, in 1919, driving India’s fight for independence. On that fateful day, Indians gathered at Jallianwala Bagh for a peaceful protest against the arrest of nationalist leaders Kitchlew and Satyapal. Surrounded by narrow lanes and houses, the troops fired indiscriminately, killing hundreds. British reports claim around 400 deaths, but Indian historians estimate the toll at 1,000. This article will explore the events leading up to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and how many people died in Jallianwala Bagh.

Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy

On April 13, 1919, British soldiers shot unarmed Indians in Amritsar’s Jallianwala Bagh, killing many, including children, and injuring hundreds.

After the Rowlett Act was passed, events led to the Punjab freedom fighters Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew. This triggered violent protests across Punjab. British rule imposed Martial Law. On April 13, 1919, people gathered at Amritsar’s Jallianwala Bagh to protest. General Dyer and troops arrived. No warning. They fired on an unarmed crowd for ten minutes.

Jallianwala Bagh’s walls bear bullet marks as a national memorial. The massacre was planned. Dyer proudly admitted it aimed for a ‘moral effect.’ He decided to shoot all the men meeting. No regrets. He went to England. Others were shocked and demanded an inquiry. A UK newspaper called it a terrible massacre. Later, on March 13, 1940, Udham Singh killed O’Dwyer. He was Punjab’s Lt. Governor during the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Indians were furious. The government reacted brutally. Punjabis were hanged, faced cages, and flogged. Newspapers were banned, and editors were jailed or deported. A reign of terror followed, like after the 1857 revolt.

Background and Significance of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre

On April 13, 1919, a large crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to protest the arrest of nationalist leaders Satya Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew. General Dyer, a British officer, entered with his troops and opened fire on the unarmed civilians without warning. The shooting lasted for ten minutes, killing around 1,000 people and injuring 2,000, according to Congress estimates. After exhausting their ammunition, Dyer and his troops withdrew. Today, the bullet marks on the walls of Jallianwala Bagh serve as a powerful reminder of this horrific event, and the site stands as a national memorial.

General Dyer later justified his actions as deliberate, claiming he intended to create a ‘moral effect’ and would have continued firing if the gathering persisted. He expressed no remorse and returned to England, where some British citizens even raised funds to honour him. However, others were appalled by the brutality and demanded an inquiry. A British newspaper described the incident as one of the bloodiest massacres in modern history.

Decades later, on March 13, 1940, Udham Singh, an Indian revolutionary, assassinated Michael O’Dwyer, the former Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, who was in office during the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. The massacre had ignited widespread outrage across India, which the British authorities met with further oppressive measures. People in Punjab were subjected to extreme humiliations, such as being forced to crawl on the streets, being confined to open cages, and facing public floggings. Newspapers were censored, and editors were imprisoned or deported. A brutal wave of repression, reminiscent of the aftermath of the 1857 revolt, swept through the region.

How many people died in the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

There were no precise official records of the number of deaths during the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. However, a British official inquiry reported 379 fatalities, while Congress estimated that over 1,000 people had been killed.

Rabindranath Tagore, who had been knighted by the British, responded to the tragedy by renouncing his knighthood. In a powerful letter to the viceroy, Tagore wrote, “The time has come when the badges of honour make our shame glaring in their incongruous context of humiliation and I for my part wish to stand shorn of all special distinctions, by the side of those of my countrymen, who for their so-called insignificance, are liable to suffer a degradation not fit for human beings.” This massacre became a pivotal moment in India’s freedom struggle.

In December 1919, the Congress session was convened in Amritsar, drawing a massive gathering, including many peasants. It was evident that the brutality of the massacre had only fueled the people’s resolve, strengthening their determination to fight for freedom and resist oppression.

What events led to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

Defence of India Act 1915

The Defence of India Act, enacted in 1915, was a wartime measure passed by the British government in India.

Background:

• During World War I, India provided significant support to the British war effort, contributing troops and resources.
• However, nationalist movements were gaining momentum, with significant activity in regions like Bengal and Punjab.
• Concerns arose over potential rebellions within the Indian Army and revolutionary conspiracies inspired by figures abroad.

The Act and Its Impact:

• The Act granted the British government in India extraordinary powers to suppress dissent and maintain order.
• These powers included the ability to detain individuals without trial, restrict freedom of speech and movement, and censor information.
• The Act had a significant impact on civil liberties and fueled resentment against British rule in India.

Key Figures:

• Lieutenant Colonel Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, a British Indian Army officer, played a key role in defining the McMahon Line, a boundary between Tibet and India.
• Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, was a strong proponent of the Defence of India Act due to the perceived threat from revolutionary movements in the region.

Rowlatt Act: Introduction and Background

Have you ever wondered about what is Rowlatt Act? It’s a historical term that refers to a law from way back in 1919 during British rule in India. The Rowlatt Act, known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, came into force on March 18, 1919. Approved by British India’s Imperial Legislative Council, it allowed trials for political issues without juries and detained suspects without proper trials. It aimed to replace the strict parts of the Defence of India Act 1915 during World War I.

Responding to fears of post-war plots, the Act granted the British India’s government power to imprison civilians without proper trials. It controlled the country’s workings, allowing arrests, imprisonment, and trials without juries. The law limited the press’s denied to information about convicts and restricted their activities after release.

On February 6, 1919, two proposals emerged in the Central Legislature from Justice Sidney Rowlatt’s committee. These banknotes were named “Black Act.” They gave police significant powers like searching and arresting without warrants. The Rowlatt Act, named after its executive, Sir Sidney Rowlatt, allowed detaining suspects for up to two years without trial. It aimed to suppress nationalist activities. Mahatma Gandhi led protests through satyagraha. This Act pushed Gandhi into India’s freedom struggle spotlight, marking the Gandhian era in political history.

Overview of What was Rowlatt Act 1919

The table below contains an outline of the act.

Rowlatt Act, 1919
Title	Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919
Geographic Range	The whole of British India
Implemented by	Imperial Legislative Council
Implemented	March 1919
Started	March 1919
Status	Repealed

The Rowlatt Act impacted India’s political scene in various ways:

Here are the impacts of the Rowlatt Act on India’s political landscape.

• Hartals and rail strikes were organized.
• Shops closed and were demolished.
• Indian officials were jailed.
• British officers fired at a peaceful rally.
• Martial law was enforced.

The Rowlatt Act ignited a massive anti-British movement akin to the 1857 Revolt. This led to India’s eventual independence. Gandhi opposed the Act, calling for a nationwide hartal and nonviolent agitation. People committed to nonviolence by signing a Satyagraha pledge, leading to the hartal’s start on April 6, 1919, which garnered significant support. Riots occurred in Punjab, halting the movement. Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew’s arrest triggered the Jallianwala Bagh incident on April 13, 1919.

What were the causes of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

• Post-WWI Discontent:
  • The war burdened India with heavy losses (manpower and resources).
  • Many Indians felt forced to fight for British interests.
  • Shortages and inflation added to the public’s frustration.
• Broken Promises:
  • British wartime rhetoric about democracy and self-determination raised Indian hopes for post-war independence.
  • The Rowlatt Act dashed these hopes, allowing arrests without trial and restricting civil liberties.
• Growing Protests:
  • The Rowlatt Act sparked nationwide protests.
  • Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) to protest the act.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:

• General Dyer’s Actions:
  • General Dyer banned public gatherings to control the situation.
  • Despite the ban, a crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh on April 13, 1919.
  • Dyer ordered troops to open fire on the unarmed crowd for ten minutes.

Aftermath:

• Heavy Casualties:
  • Official reports state 379 deaths, but estimates suggest a much higher number.
• Nationalist Uprising:
  • The massacre ignited widespread outrage and fueled the Indian independence movement.
  • Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in response.
  • Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Limited Reprimand:
  • A commission investigated the incident, but General Dyer only received a formal reprimand.

What was the impact of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

1. Immediate Impact: 

• Shock and Outrage: The massacre shocked India and the world, marking a turning point in the Indian independence movement. Many Indians had hoped for reforms under British rule, but the brutality of the massacre shattered that belief. 

• Mass Mourning: The news of the massacre spread quickly, causing grief and protests across India. Families of the victims suffered immense emotional and psychological trauma. 

2. Political Impact: 

• Radicalization of the Indian Independence Movement: The massacre led to a shift from seeking reforms through cooperation with the British to more radical actions. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi called for the non-cooperation movement, urging Indians to refuse collaboration with the British government. 

• Rise of Nationalism: The massacre galvanized people from various backgrounds to join the independence movement, strengthening the call for an end to British rule. 

• International Attention: The massacre drew global attention. While the British government tried to minimize its impact, the atrocity sparked outrage worldwide, especially among those sympathetic to Indian independence. 

3. Social Impact: 

• Loss of Faith in British Justice: The massacre shattered any remaining belief in the possibility of justice under British rule. The British government’s refusal to take responsibility intensified feelings of betrayal. 

• Trauma and Collective Memory: The massacre left deep psychological scars on survivors and the families of victims. It became a symbol of colonial oppression, shaping India’s struggle for independence. 

• Symbol of Unity: The tragedy helped unite diverse communities in India Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims under the common cause of independence, fostering a sense of shared national identity. 

4. Cultural and Long-Term Impact: 

• Memorials and Public Awareness: The Jallianwala Bagh Memorial was established at the massacre site, including the well where many people jumped to escape the gunfire and the bullet marks on the walls. It serves as a place of reflection and commemoration. 

• Legacy of Violence: The massacre became a symbol of British colonial violence, highlighting the lengths to which colonial rulers would go to suppress dissent. 

• Independence Movement: The Jallianwala Bagh massacre significantly strengthened the momentum of the independence movement, contributing to the ultimate demand for freedom from British rule. 

5. British Reaction and Aftermath: 

• Reginald Dyer’s Justification: Brigadier General Dyer, who ordered the massacre, was initially praised by some in Britain for maintaining order. Over time, however, his actions became controversial, and he faced growing criticism. 

• Public Opinion Shift in Britain: British public opinion shifted, with many condemning Dyer’s actions. In 1920, he was relieved of his post, though he faced no formal punishment for the massacre. 

6. Commemoration and Apology: 

• British Apology: The British government issued a formal apology for the massacre in 1997, with Prime Minister Tony Blair expressing “deep regret.” However, the apology did not fully acknowledge the British government’s direct responsibility for the atrocity. 

• Ongoing Relevance: The massacre remains a significant event in India’s history, central to the narrative of independence and the collective memory of colonial oppression.

Which leaders condemned the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

The massacre at Jallianwala Bagh was widely condemned both domestically in India and abroad. At the time, a large number of political figures denounced the massacre’s brutality and demanded justice and accountability.

The following are a few prominent political figures:

• Mahatma Gandhi: Gandhi is among the most well-known leaders of the Indian nationalist movement. He was among the first to denounce the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh. In response to the violence, he advocated for nonviolent demonstrations and civil disobedience.
• Jawaharlal Nehru: Nehru, a prominent member of the Indian nationalist movement and the country’s first prime minister, was a strong opponent of British colonialism. Furthermore, denouncing the Jallianwala Bagh massacre as a “monstrous crime”
• Annie Besant: a women’s rights activist and socialist from Britain who rose to prominence as a leader in the Indian nationalist movement. Besant demanded more political autonomy and self-rule for India and denounced the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
• Rabindranath Tagore: The first Indian to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, Tagore was a poet, writer, and philosopher from Bengal. In opposition to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, he renounced his knighthood. And sent a bitter letter denouncing the violence to Lord Chelmsford, the British Viceroy.
• Winston Churchill: Churchill, a statesman and politician from Britain, was a vocal opponent of how the British government handled the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh. He referred to the incident as “a monstrous event” and demanded an investigation into it.

These are but a handful of the numerous political figures who denounced the massacre at Jallianwala Bagh.

Significance of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre wasn’t just a horrific event; it served as a critical turning point in India’s fight for freedom:

• From Protest to Resistance: The brutal massacre shattered the illusion of peaceful negotiation with the British Raj. It galvanized a shift towards more active resistance against British rule.
• Unity in the Face of Oppression: News of the massacre transcended regional and religious divides. It fostered a powerful sense of national unity against the brutality of colonial rule.
• Radicalization of the Freedom Movement: The Indian National Congress, previously advocating for self-governance within the British Empire, adopted a more radical stance. The demand for complete independence became a rallying cry.
• Scrutiny and Reform: The international outcry triggered by the massacre forced the British government to acknowledge the excesses of its colonial administration. This led to some moderation of repressive laws and policies in India.
• A Lasting Symbol: Jallianwala Bagh remains a potent symbol in India’s national memory. It serves as a constant reminder of the sacrifices made in the pursuit of freedom and the horrors of colonial oppression.

Who Ordered the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, or Massacre of Amritsar, occurred on April 13, 1919. General Reginald Dyer, a British officer,  ordered to fire without warning at a banned public meeting. The people were at a festival and protesting British rules. Dyer aimed to create fear and stop protests against the British. He believed force was needed to control India. New laws limited Indian movement due to British rule. The crowd at Jallianwala Bagh violated the laws. General Dyer saw a chance for revenge. He ordered troops to fire, trapping people. Many died in the chaos. Dyer aimed to terrorize Indians, asserting British control. Some Britons cheered him. Indians gave him money. Rudyard Kipling praised Dyer.

Punjab’s Governor O’Dwyer backed him but was dismissed later. Both had admirers, collecting £26,000. Dyer was called an honorary Sikh. Jallianwala Bagh is remembered due to Britain’s handling of the incident. Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer acted with support from Punjab Governor Sir Michael O’Dwyer and India’s colonial government. Lord Chelmsford led this government. Dyer’s family managed the Dyer-Meakin brewery in Himachal Pradesh. An inquiry led by Lord Hunter followed the massacre in July 1919. The Golden Temple’s management gave Dyer a kirpan and a Siropa. Udham Singh later shot O’Dwyer, who had his fund. Prominent Punjabis like Kunj Bihari Thapar contributed to it.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre UPSC Aspirants

Understanding the Context:

• The Jallianwala Bagh massacre wasn’t an isolated event. It occurred in 1919 amidst simmering anger against the Rowlatt Act, a wartime law granting the British broad arrest and detention powers.

The Day the Garden Bled:

• April 13, 1919, marked a dark day in Indian history. A peaceful gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar (Punjab), to celebrate Baisakhi (harvest festival) turned into a bloodbath.

The Spark That Ignited the Fire:

• The gathering was a protest against the arrest of nationalist leaders under the Rowlatt Act. Little did they know, they would be facing a monstrous act of colonial brutality.

General Dyer’s Barbarity:

• Brigadier General Dyer, known for his ruthless methods, ordered troops to block the sole exit of the enclosed garden and open fire on the unsuspecting crowd, aiming to crush dissent with an iron fist.

The Scale of the Tragedy:

• Official British records minimize the carnage, reporting around 379 deaths. However, Indian sources suggest a much higher toll, with estimates exceeding 1,000 fatalities and countless injuries.

A Turning Point in the Freedom Struggle:

• The massacre served as a tipping point. Public outrage surged, uniting diverse sections of Indian society against British rule. Support for the Indian National Congress and leaders like Gandhi advocating non-violent resistance swelled significantly.

Beyond India’s Borders:

• International condemnation of the atrocity tarnished Britain’s image. It forced some legislative changes and a moderation of harsh colonial policies in India.

A Lasting Legacy:

• Jallianwala Bagh remains a potent symbol of colonial oppression and the sacrifices made in the fight for freedom. It serves as a stark reminder of the struggle for independence.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre short note

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre happened on April 13, 1919, in Amritsar, Punjab. Thousands of people had gathered at Jallianwala Bagh to protest peacefully against a new British law called the Rowlatt Act. Without any warning, British officer General Dyer ordered his soldiers to fire on the crowd. The garden had only a few narrow exits, so people could not escape. Hundreds of innocent men, women, and children were killed. This tragic event shocked the country and made many Indians join the fight for freedom from British rule.

Conclusion

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre stands as a pivotal and tragic turning point in the history of the Indian independence movement. The brutal action, ordered by General Reginald Dyer, exposed the extreme nature of British colonial rule and shattered the faith of Indian moderates in the possibility of justice within the system. In the aftermath, the official Hunter Commission inquiry was established. However, its consequences for General Dyer were minimal; he was removed from his command and forced to retire but faced no criminal trial. This lack of accountability was met with outrage in India, while Dyer was controversially celebrated by some in Britain. This stark division permanently widened the rift between the rulers and the ruled.

The massacre had two direct and powerful consequences. First, it compelled Mahatma Gandhi to launch his first large-scale non-cooperation movement, transforming the freedom struggle into a mass movement. Second, it ignited a surge of nationalist fervor, inspiring a new generation of Indians to join the fight for freedom. The event’s legacy is profound; it is remembered as a symbol of colonial oppression and a crucial catalyst that accelerated India’s journey to becoming an independent nation on August 15, 1947.

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